This lecture on the ancient Chinese philosopher, Zhuangzi, was given by Professor Wang Bo, Professor of Philosophy at Beijing University as part of Imperial Tours sponsored research into Chinese philosophy and ideas.
The Spirit of Zhuangzi
By Professor Wang Bo
Good evening everybody. My name is Professor Wang Bo and I have been at Peking University (PKU) for about 24 years since 1982. My major is philosophy, especially Chinese philosophy.
Zhuangzi is my favorite philosopher. Generally speaking philosophers should not like things, you know, they should not be anyone’s fan. Well, Zhuangzi is really very special, very cool. So I am just Zhuangzi’s fan, and not anyone else’s.
Tonight we are going to talk about Zhuangzi. Zhuangzi did not like theories – he liked to relax. I hope both you and I feel relaxed. So, let’s begin.
Zhuangzi was a person; however, I have always suspected that he was not human. In Chinese if you say that someone is not human, you are insulting them. However, there is a story about the famous poet, Su Dongpo, during the Song dynasty. Once, when he wanted to praise a girl he started as though he was going to insult her. He said that the girl was not a human. But he went on to say “but rather a fairy descended to the mortal world”. Thus, he created a very strong contrast. Imitating him, I say that Zhuangzi is from heaven. The reason why I say so is because he is too different. Many, including he himself, considered him crazy. Of course this was not due to any mental disorder but because of his understanding of the world and life.
Zhuangzi lived about two thousand three hundred years ago. It is very far from us, especially, from you. To us Chinese he is far in time, while for you there are many other kinds of distances also. However, I believe human beings can share many things. Thus, not only I but I believe also you can comprehend him as well.
During his lifetime, Zhuangzi did many strange things. I’ll give you two examples. The first is that he refused official positions. We know that Zhuangzi was a great scholar. My name is Wang Bo. Bo means abundant. But compared with Zhuangzi, I am like a grain of rice measured against a granary. So you can imagine the extent of his knowledge. Because of his knowledge many people wanted Zhuangzi to become an official in their government, particularly in the Kingdom of Chu. Zhuangzi was offered the position of Prime Minister, like China’s Mr. Wen Jianbao today.
Generally speaking, Chinese intellectuals are convinced that ‘he who excels in study can follow an official career’. So many people seek a position in government. However, when Zhuangzi was invited by the King of Chu he resolutely refused. He told the emissary the story of two animals, a pig and an ox.
The ox had often been used as a sacrificial offering in ancient China. Prior to the sacrifice it would receive very good treatment. It would be placed in a nice pen where it could enjoy good food, hot baths and even wonderful music. However, its destiny was to be butchered. By contrast, although the pig is housed in mud in a poor environment, it lived a longer life.
For Zhuangzi, entering government was like becoming a sacrificial ox. The destiny is very different for the pig: he might live in a bad environment but he leads an unconstrained life. Zhuangzi asked the emissary whether he would prefer to be the sacrificial ox or a pig. For him, the answer was obvious. He preferred to be a pig.
From the story of The Bull and the Pig we can see Zhuangzi’s attitude towards power. He considers power the dirtiest, ugliest and cruelest thing in the world. In Chinese we can describe someone as a ‘Renwu’ – literally a human object. In my opinion, and I believe that Zhuangzi would agree with me, this means a person is turned into an object. In other words, power is so corrupting that it can turn a person into an object.
The second example of Zhuangzi’s peculiarity is related to his wife’s death. In China – I believe this is universal – you should demonstrate sorrow in such circumstances.
Prof. Wu reads out the following excerpt by Zhuangzi:
“When Zhuangzi’s wife died, Hui Shi went to console him. He found the widower sitting on the ground, singing, with his legs spread out at a right angle, beating time on a bowl.
‘To live with your wife’, exclaimed Hui Shi, ‘and see your eldest son grow up to be a man, and then not to shed a tear over her corpse, this would be bad enough. But to drum on a bowl, and sing; surely this is going too far.’
‘Not at all’, replied Zhuangzi. ‘When she died, I could not help being affected by her death. Soon, however, I remembered that she had already existed in a previous state before birth, without form or even substance; that while in that unconditioned condition, substance was added to spirit; that this substance then assumed form; and that the next stage was birth. And now, by virtue of a further change, she is dead, passing from one phase to another like the sequence of spring, summer, autumn, and winter. And while she is thus lying asleep in Eternity, for me to go about weeping and wailing would be to proclaim myself ignorant of these natural laws. Therefore I refrain from it.”
As you can see, Zhuangzi is indeed a very unusual person. It is exactly this peculiarity which makes Zhuangzi so enchanting. He is liked by both friend and foe. Most of the time, it is his wisdom they like. I’ve always felt that Zhuangzi is the most intelligent person in Chinese history. In his book there are many passages which indicate this wisdom.
Have you heard the parable in which he debates fish’s happiness with his friend? This parable is very popular. One day Zhuangzi and his friend Hui Shi, a logician, took a walk along a river. They stopped at a stone bridge and saw fish swimming in the river. Zhuangzi said, “look at how happy the fish are.” His best friend, maybe his only friend, the logician said “you are not a fish so how do you know if the fish are happy or not?” But Zhuangzi answered, “You are not me, so how do you know that I do not know that fish are happy?” I think from this parable the ancient wisdom of Zhuangzi is clear. Maybe we can glimpse a different kind of logic to that of Aristotle.
I also like very much another idea of Zhuangzi, which is about the nature of debate. It goes like this: suppose I am going to have a debate with this lady sitting in the front row of this lecture hall. If I win and she loses, have I really won? And conversely, if she wins and I lose, has she really won? Zhuangzi said, “Maybe we can find an arbiter, but if this arbiter shares my opinion then he is not qualified to be an arbiter. However, if he shares the opinion of this lady, he is not qualified to act as one either. And if he holds views that are different from either of ours, he is even less qualified to act as an arbiter.”
This story leads us to question if there is an arbiter in the world. We often see in sports events that the umpires frequently make mistakes. The same goes for judges of the court of law. So I have always felt that there is no justice in this world. There is only the fairness of a person.
This is the first impression I would like to give you of Zhuangzi, to draw your attention to Zhuangzi as being very different from others. A person like this of course has a very different way of thinking.
In the second part of our talk tonight, I’d like to introduce how Zhuangzi understands ‘love’. I believe this is a question we, even philosophers, are all interested in. We will first discuss the Confucianist concept of ‘love’. One thinks of Confucius and Mencius as soon as we think of Confucianism. The teachings of the Confucianists are rich in compassion. One should love one’s parents, brothers, friends, neighbors, compatriots and the world. Of course the extent of love is different. One should love one’s wife more than others’ wives. We can find a lot of statements concerning the concrete course of action in Confucianism. The most important is “Dui ji ji ren’ -“Do as you would be done by”.
The Confucianist ‘dui ji ji ren’ seeks to project one’s own aspiration onto others. The underlying conviction is that one and others are similar and that the whole human race shares the same inherent nature. Because of this we can understand each other. From this, the Confucianists advocate many concepts which are familiar to the Chinese people, such as “Do not do to others what you do not want to be done”, or “Establish others just as you wish to establish yourself”, and “Enable others just as how you seek to distinguish yourself”. In other words, if I want to be a billionaire, I’ll help you to become a billionaire. If I want to be a high official I’ll help you to become one. This is the “Do to others what you want to be done” way of thinking of the Confucianists.
Zhuangzi raised doubts about this. He would wonder “am I going to like what you like”? “Would I dislike what you like?” Can this be a true relationship, for example, between President Bush of the USA and President Saddam of Iraq? So the simple deduction of others from oneself can not be established. In other words, this kind of love can bring disaster, even if the starting point comes from good intentions.
Let’s take another parable from the works of Zhuangzi. A bird suddenly made its appearance in the capital of the Kingdom of Lu. The King was very pleased and tried all he could to entertain the bird. Just like the treatment received by heads of states, the bird enjoyed 21 salutes of the cannon, a state banquet, was entertained by the Central Orchestra, and was indulged in all the activities and fashions of which that the King was fond. Three days later the bird died of fright.
Why? Zhuangzi said there are two ways of loving the bird, one is what you like and the other is what the bird likes. For Zhuangzi, the Confucianist type of love offers what you like. The King loved the bird but his love killed the bird.
This also makes us think about romantic love. How should two people passionately in love treat one another? I have seen too many cases where one of the parties tries hard to change the other after their own fashion. They give honorable reasons for this, such as, “I am only doing this because I love you” or “I care for you and this is for your own good”. There can be two outcomes. One is that this effort brings about the rupture of the relationship. The other is that the person you fell in love with has completely disappeared and has been transformed into someone else.
When the Confucianists talk about love and to “do to others what you want to be done” they use a very good term, ‘jiaohua”- to educate and bring about change. It sounds nice as it is a very gentle and soft method. However, in my opinion it is a very terrible method. When someone waves a knife at you, you can feel the intent to subjugate you. But when someone sweet talks you to change you are not even aware of the threat before you are dead.
Martial arts novels are very popular in China. A female killer in one of the novels is called ‘Wenrou” – gentleness. She always acts very gentle and warm with her adversaries leading them to lower their guard before she gives the fateful stab. I sometimes refer to this as killing by subtle means which is more frightening than killing in a battle field.
There is a very popular song in China which is called “Qiaci nide wenrou” – just like your gentleness. In Chinese, qiaci – just like – and strangle to death have the same pronunciation.
Seeing problems in the theories of Confucianists, Zhuangzi took a different course. The basic spirit of this kind of love is to believe that every person is an individual and independent entity. In other words, every person is unique. No one qualified to be the teacher of the other, and no one should be the disciple of the other. The best is for every person to choose his or her own way.
A famous saying of Zhuangzi goes like this: “When the springs dry out, the fish are left high and dry. They splutter and shake to keep it each other wet, but it would be best for them to forget each other in the rivers and lakes.” Their act of moistening one another is the description of the kind of love preached by the Confucianist. The idea that it would be best for them to forget one another in the rivers and lakes is an understanding of love by Zhuangzi. Certainly, it does not mean that a couple should totally forget one another. It implies rather that although we are married, we are different entities and each should have his or her own life style. For Zhuangzi this would be genuine love. As compared with the Confucianista, Zhuangzi appears to have a ‘cool’ tone. In reading Confucianist works such as the Analects, Mengzi or Xunzi you can feel some ‘heat’. I compare reading the Analects to spring, with Mengzi you are in the summer and Xunzi in autumn: although there are seasonal differences the heat is there. When reading Zhuangzi, you cannot feel any heat. However, you do not feel wintry. Zhuangzi is not that grim. You feel the breeze of cool air.
For Chinese intellectuals a combination of the Confucianist and Daoist philosophies strikes a good balance.
I like to bathe in hot springs. I do not know of a very good one in China, but when I go to Taiwan or Korea I always visit their hot springs. There are usually hot and cold pools in the hot spring. And it is nice to go from one to the other. You do not stay in one for a long time as it is not comfortable; Confucianism is like the hot pool and Zhuangzi is like the cold pool. The best is a combination of the two, like at the hot springs. The best is to place the hot springs in your heart. In my case, each semester I teach two courses, generally one on Confucianism and one on Daoism. That’s the way I like it so that my heart can enjoy this equilibrium.
Let’s read a poem written by the most famous Chinese poet Li Bai. He lived in the Tang dynasty and was also a crazy person. In many ways he resembles Zhuangzi. Indeed he liked Zhuangzi very much.
DRINKING ALONE WITH
THE MOON
By Li Bai (701-762)
From a pot of wine among the flowers I drank alone.
There was no one with me –
Till, raising my cup, I asked the bright moon
to bring me my shadow and make us three.
Alas, the moon was unable to drink
and my shadow tagged me vacantly;
But still for a while I had these friends
to cheer me through the end of spring….
I sang. The moon encouraged me.
I danced. My shadow tumbled after.
As long as I knew, we were boon companions.
And then I was drunk, and we lost one another.
…Shall goodwill ever be secure?
I watch the long road of the River of Stars.
Generally speaking, Chinese drink in one of two circumstances. When we are very happy or when we feel lonely and sad. Here it is the latter. Li Bai is drinking in a very beautiful place where there are lots of flowers. However, he emphasizes the fact that he was alone without a single companion. You can imagine that it would have been very easy for him to find someone to drink with. But he wants to stress the loneliness of human beings. Then he mentions that there are three of them, the moon, his shadow and he. Again, it is not true there are three drinking together. In the same way, for Zhuangzi, the collective does not exist. The collective of a multitude is artificial. So in the poem, after mentioning that there are three, the poet Li Bai goes on to say that the other two do not understand me at all. It is the same for Zhuangzi – the people around Zhuangzi can be friends or strangers but either way they can not take away the feeling of loneliness.
The poem goes on to say that we seem to be together while we are drinking but we disperse when we become intoxicated. I think Li Bai means that when you are drunk you have the illusion that you are with people. But as soon as you get sober you realize that you are alone. In ending, Li Bai implies that if we are in any case lonely why should we become attached but instead wonder freely “on the river of stars”.
Let’s turn to Zhuangzi’s paradoxes on deformity and the usefulness of the useless. Some students have asked me if Zhuangzi was in some way deformed himself, “otherwise why refer to all those deformed people?” For me this question is ridiculous for it misunderstands Zhuangzi. There are two questions on the issue of deformity. The first is its relationship to uselessness. The second issue is that, according to him, we are all deformed in some way. In other words, there is no perfect person in the world.
People assume that a deformity makes someone useless as compared with a normal person. By contrast, Zhuangzi reminds us of the advantages of being deformed. In ancient China, military service and corvee were mandatory.
You may have heard the story of Menjiangnu. Her husband was drafted thousands of years ago to help construct a portion of the Great Wall. When he failed to return, Menjiangnu set out to find her husband. Her wail upon learning of his death toppled the Great Wall. Although this is only a popular myth, it is possible to relate to the pain of losing a loved one through corvee.
In the time of Zhuangzi, the situation was different for crippled people. They could swagger downtown without fear of being conscripted or being drafted for corvee labor. And yet, in times of bounty, when the government was giving hand-outs, they were the first to benefit. Consideration for handicapped is much better in the USA and in Europe. When I went swimming in the States five years ago I noticed the swimming lane reserved for the handicapped.
Zhuangzi also uses the symbol of the deformed tree in his parables to make this point. He and his disciples used to walk in the mountains. There they usually found the straight, handsome trees felled and the twisted, ugly trees unharmed. If there were two water wells, one sweet and the other astringent, the former well would be exhausted first. This is the harm of the useful and the usefulness of the useless.
But even this paradox is not straightforward. One day, after crossing a tall mountain Zhuangzi and his disciples arrived at a friend’s place. The host was happy to see them, and so decided to kill one of his chickens to entertain the guests. His servant asked the host to choose between butchering the rooster which crowed in the morning or the one which did not. The host chose the one which did not. At this, Zhuangzi’s students were completely confused. They asked Zhuangzi what they should think as the uselessness of the trees enabled them to survive whilst the uselessness of the chicken got it killed. Zhuangzi responded by saying that one should remain in a state of equilibrium between usefulness and uselessness, which is of course easier said than done.
The Chinese employ Zhuangzi’s wisdom in life and can navigate between usefulness and uselessness according to circumstance. For instance, when one’s boss invites you to drink alcohol, you should drink. But when the boss does not invite you to drink alcohol, you should not. In other words, you have to have a firm grip of the proper limits.
Lao Zi lived before Zhuang Zi and exercised a profound influence on Chinese peoples’ ways of thinking. His thinking on this matter shows parallels. Lao Zi said ‘guang er bu yao’ – to be light but refrain from shining, literally that if someone is too brilliant, he or she might make it impossible for others to shut their eyes. In other words, the brilliant person makes others uncomfortable. It is as though a very pretty girl would draw the jealousy of other girls. So it is important that you try to hide your own talent and conceal your beauty.
The second implication of usefulness versus uselessness is that no man is perfect. The Confucianists want to mold us into becoming the perfect person – the sage. Actually, it is very tiring to be a sage. I believe that there are two circumstances where the world can produce such a ‘perfect person’. One is in death. In all the commemorations in China one gives the most praise to the deceased. The second circumstance is through hypocrisy. We used to believe that Chinese leaders were perfect people. But clearly they were not.
So, there is no perfect person. In this case, why don’t we bravely and truthfully recognize our own deformity? For Zhuangzi, as long as you have a body you are deformed. For instance, if you are a man then you can not be a woman. Even someone as tall as Yao Ming (the basket ball player) might for example envy my height, especially if he found himself enclosed in a small space. So as long as we have a shape and structure we are doomed to be deformed.
Furthermore, due to the fact that we have a form or structure we have to live in a group. And we have to consider the other forms and structures. For example, when I sit on this chair others cannot sit on the same chair. In other words, we face conflict with other forms and structure. So we should constantly control, restrain, and keep ourselves within bounds.
All around us there are many hunchbacks: when we restrain ourselves we are in some sense hunching our backs. When I meet someone in a higher position to me, I should bow. In ancient China, a person was expected to kowtow. Zhuangzi probably understood this action as a deformation of the body. Indeed, I consider it a necessary deformity. So, we should all be brave enough to accept the fact that we are deformed. Sometimes deformity is a technique for survival. For instance, hiding your talents is a deformity or a technique. But this is negative and passive, whereas Zhuangzi incorporates deformity in the way of life that he seeks.
Zhuangzi calls the kind of person he likes as ‘zhen ren’ – a true person. The most important thing is to be authentic, which is loveable. So the ‘true person’ is one with defects. Which is more loveable, a perfect person or a person with blemishes? Obviously, the one with blemishes is loveable because of his defects. Too much perfection will make us stay at a respectful distance from that person.
So this is Zhuangzi, that’s the way he is telling us to live. There is much more to him, and if you are interested you could get a book on him. I believe you will fall in love with him, but of course in his way of loving.
Questions and Answers
Question: With Zhuangzi is there any particular purpose or aim?
Answer: I believe that Zhuangzi has no sense of mission or responsibility. Maybe he feels that he has too little power to change things. The only thing he can do is to change his way of thinking. He realizes that when he changes his way of thinking, the world changes as well. The philosophy of Zhuangzi is a biography of how he lived, telling us how and why he lived his life. But he does not force others to lead lives like his. He encourages us to lead our own individual life.
Question: I came across a quotation which criticized Zhuangzi for raising peoples’ interests in a philosophical goal but not providing the means to reach it. The quotation compares Zhuangzi to a travel brochure that offers lovely destinations with no information on getting to them. From what Professor Wang has said he seems to disagree fundamentally with that quotation, as he says that Zhuangzi is prescriptive in offering his own life as an example of the path to follow. When I read Zhuangzi it seems to me that he is saying that it is a good thing to be a sage and that the secret to it is to lose the concept of oneself, to lose the ego.
It seems to me that the best place to go for practical guidance in how to attain is Zen Buddhism for three reasons. The first reason is that Zen suggests attaining happiness by losing the concept of oneself just like the narrative of Zhuangzi. Secondly, that Zen Buddhism is strongly influenced by Zhuangzi. The third reason is that Zen Buddhism has practical methods for achieving this, such as meditation. The professor might disagree with the quotation, but what does he think of the relationship between Zen Buddhism and Zhuangzi?
Answer: This is a very professional question. I am impressed that among the audience there are people who know Zen Buddhism so well. I’d like to start with the world as understood by Zhuangzi. For him our world is constantly changing with no law or pattern. In this sense, he is a pessimist in his world view. Being a pessimist means he does not think there is a fixed goal.
Confucianists believe that the world has a pattern, that it is definite with eternal things and values. So they are very optimistic and believe that humans have natures that are full of benevolence, righteousness, etiquette and wisdom. For Zhuangzi none of these exist. Human beings exist within unknown processes which we can not grasp. We are born unwittingly and will die in circumstances we cannot control. If there is an objective to life, it is to adapt ourselves to this constant change. We can call Zhuangzi a wonderer but one who has no objective. He compares life to a small boat without sail in the ocean. It is carried by the water.
This doesn’t mean that Zhuangzi does not care about anything. He has made a very clear distinction about his own life, which he says is composed of two parts, one of the body and the other the mind. Our body is completely controlled by destiny. We are born good-looking or not, tall or short; none of these can be determined by ourselves. However, Zhuangzi does care about his mind. In the book, Zhuangzi describes beautiful places, girls and butterflies, in short, lots of scenes which exist only in his mind. He doesn’t care what he sees because even the ugliest things, such as garbage, are transformed by him into something beautiful. It is because he has a special mind.
There are many similarities between Zen Buddhism and Zhuangzi. I don’t think that Zhuangzi would admire the idea of sitting in meditation that Zen promotes. He would find this too forced. When a person needs to sit still in order to quiet his mind, he is in a lower state of attainment. One should be able to attain the tranquility of mind even when one is talking, drinking wine, attending a concert or in a very noisy place.
Question: In what way is Zhuangzi the continuation of Laozi? In what way is he innovating?
Answer: The Chinese usually mention the two together. A corresponding pair is to mention Confucius and Mencius together. However the relations between the former are very different from those between the latter. The transmission of ideas amongst the Confucianists pass from master to disciple. That is why Confucius is the teacher of all teachers. But for Zhuangzi, no one can be the teacher of another, not even if that person is Laozi. That is why we can not detect adulation of Laozi in the book of Zhuangzi. They are actually very different.
Laozi cares mostly about the art of rulership. But Zhuangzi is not at all interested in it and finds Laozi vulgar. It is very difficult to say what Zhuangzi has inherited or innovated from Laozi. They do share some ideas but with totally different attitudes. The best is not to put Zhuangzi with anyone else, as all the others are mortals and Zhuangzi is a celestial being.
Thank you.
The transcript of the lecture was translated into English by Prof. I-Chuan Wu.
The short article, Occult Universe, presents the basic patterns of belief current in China from the third millenium BC. It introduces the Book of Changes , which was as influential in the development of Confucianism as it was in much Daoist doctrine. Yet whereas Confucius expanded this book's social implications, Daoism elaborated on its metaphysical claim – to understand the invariable laws controlling the process of change in the universe. Lao Zi, who founded the Daoist movement with his work, Dao De Jing (Power and Principle), writes, "to know the invariable is enlightenment."
Lao Zi's Ideas
Lao Zi believed that in order to understand Dao – the mystical, all-encompassing power governing the universe – each individual should, through contemplation, master the invariable laws that cause and enforce the processes of change. Realising this ambition is no easy matter however – first, the individual should prepare to receive enlightenment. This requires the observation of "non-action" and the un-learning of all superficial knowledge. Only after rediscovering his/her inner essence can an individual understand and unite with Dao .
1) Detecting the invariable
In the Dao De Jing , Lao Zi sets down the principles of the invariable laws that he has discovered. The most important of these is that "reversal is the movement of Dao ", as introduced above (see "The theory of Yin and Yang" in Occult Universe). Lao Zi writes that since change always moves "to fill the empty or empty the full", to achieve something you should therefore first admit its opposite, i.e. if you wish to be happy, you should first seek to be sad. Secondly, he asserts that change always moves in the direction of the least resistance towards what is simplest and easiest. Thirdly, and controversially, he claims that all forms of Progress create dissension and unhappiness rather than harmony and improvement. He is adamant that if an individual wishes to understand Dao, s/he must first un-learn the spurious knowledge of the supposedly advanced world. The path to understanding Dao begins with the discovery of one's inner essence through "non-action".
2) Practising Non-action
Non-action occurs when a person or thing acts in natural and spontaneous concordance with its inner principle or De ; it is the opposite of all that is arbitrary, learned and artificial. Lao Zi insists that people have lost their essence precisely because they have developed too many desires and too much knowledge. As a result they cannot observe how Dao , the universal invariable power, affects the De or universal principle in all things. Only by reducing their lives to the simplicity of the Dao , can people begin to understand these forces. Thus in the second verse Lao Zi writes, "The Man of Calling. dwells in effectiveness without action. He practices teaching without talking. All beings emerge and he does not refuse himself to them. He generates and yet possesses nothing. He is effective and keeps nothing."
3) Defining Dao
Although it is possible to communicate the purpose of understanding Dao , it is impossible to define Dao itself. This is because Lao Zi, like the Chinese Buddhists, believes that language cannot contain nor express the unearthly experience of Dao . As a result he, like the Chinese Buddhists, only ever describes it through allusions. To give some indication of Dao , we shall quote the famous, introductory verse of Lao Zi's Dao De Jing .
"The Dao that can be expressed is not the eternal Dao .
The name that can be named is not the eternal name.
"Non-existence" I call the beginning of Heaven and Earth.
"Existence" I call the mother of individual beings.
Therefore does the direction towards non-existence lead to the sight of the miraculous essence,
the direction towards existence to the sight of spatial limitations.
Both are one in origin and different only in name.
In its unity it is called the secret.
The secret's still deeper secret is the gateway through which all miracles emerge."
4) Conflict with Confucianism
Whereas Confucius wanted to improve the morality of a progressive society, Lao Zi aimed to enlighten the individual through a regressive ideology. As a result their two philosophies came into conflict.
Since Lao Zi conceived of the Dao above all distinctions of good and evil, he concluded that the Confucian values of human-heartedness and righteousness denigrated these higher principles. Consequently he writes:
"When the Dao is lost, there is the De .
When the De is lost, there is the virtue of human-heartedness.
When human-heartedness is lost there is the virtue of righteousness.
When righteousness is lost, there are the ceremonials.
These are the degeneration of loyalty and good faith and the beginning of Disorder."
This represents the philosophical conflict between Daoism and Confucianism. The two philosophers also disagreed on the role of government. Whereas Confucius supported a progressive Emperor, Lao Zi called on the Emperor to limit government and un-do the effects of civilisation.
It could be argued that Lao Zi's quasi-anarchistic approach might be appropriate for some individuals, but that it is not a profitable pursuit for society at large. However, a later philosopher, Chuang Zi, elaborated Lao Zi's concepts. By using esoteric paradoxes and elusive riddles, Chuang Zi displayed the logical contradictions at play in daily life and language, and thereby succeeded in justifying the possible role of Daoism for everyday society.
Chuang Zi's Ideas
Chuang Zi's most significant contribution was in the identification of relative and absolute happiness.
1) Relative happiness:
Chuang Zi argues for a happy world. He claims that happiness does not conform to any absolute uniformity, but that people are happy, according to their natures ( De ), to different extents. It is a natural law, he says, that people will find their own levels of happiness if they are left to freely express their natural ability. Therefore, to create a society of relative happiness uniformity should be abolished in political and social philosophy. When people are allowed to fully express their natural ability, Chuang Zi claims, there is no need for government, since it is a law of nature that people will be able to find their own levels of relative happiness. Government's role, therefore, should be limited to allowing people to fully express their natural ability.
2) Absolute happiness:
This was reserved for those select individuals, who by transcending the ordinary distinction of things, could melt into life's infinitely changing process. Such a person does not analyse and discriminate between issues. When confronted by opposites this sage sees dynamic partners (Yin and Yang) in a process of ever-fluctuating change. He or she therefore combines contradictions into a unified whole. The sage loses her sense of self and thereby identifies with the infinite. This is absolute happiness. "If we attain this unity and identify ourselves with it," writes Chuang Zi, "then the members of our body are but so much dust and dirt, while life and death, end and beginning, are but as the succession of day and night, which cannot disturb our inner peace. How much less shall we be troubled by worldly gain and loss, good luck and bad luck!"
Unlike Confucianism, which is primarily a social philosphy, Daoism addresses metaphysical problems. It is a philosophy, indigenous to China, that seeks to explain the origins and processes of the universe.
In the introductory article on the Occult Universe we establish the the basic model of Chinese thought which Confucius inherited. His contribution was to imbue this primtive but complex system with a moral value. For Confucius was an innovative conservative. While upholding all the ceremonial rituals of the existing cultural model, he gave them a moral significance of his own making.
In this short article, after introducing Confucius and principal ideas, we outline his significance in Chinese history.
Confucius
In 551 BC in the state of Lu, Confucius was born to a noble but impecunious house. As a young man he took up government office, in which he rose to a position of relative prominence before being forced out by intrigue. At the age of 50 he became China’s first private teacher, and developed a large following of disciples who wrote up his sayings after his death.
His Principal Ideas
Confucianism contains 3 central ideas: (1) the rectification of names, (2) the relationship between human-heartedness and righteousness and (3) knowing Ming or fate.
1) The rectification of names:
As explained in the Occult Universe, traditional Chinese philosophy presumed that every thing conformed to a universal principle. Confucius strongly believed that society should likewise conform to this law. He called this idea the rectification of names, “Let the ruler be ruler, the minister minister, the father father and the son son” (Analects, XII, 11) If every citizen took on the responsibility of acting in accordance with the natural principle that defines her social position, then there would always be harmony.
Popular culture has often misinterpreted this concept as the strict observance of social etiquette and ritual. But as we shall now see, this impression has trivialised Confucian thought.
2) Human-heartedness and righteousness:
Although every social position carries within it, a defined set of responsibilities or righteousness , Confucius insisted that the fulfilment of these duties should be inspired by human-heartedness , which he defined as “loving others”. (Analects, XII, 22) His values thus complement both the Christian ideal of love and the Buddhist ideal of compassion. Since Confucius believed that humans were social animals, the proper conduct of relationships was vital to him. For it was only in relation to others that one could establish one’s virtuous character. “The man of human-heartedness is one who desiring to sustain himself, sustains others, and desiring to develop himself, develops others; that may be called the way to practise human-heartedness.” (VI, 28)
3) Knowing Ming:
“Ming” in Chinese means fate. “Knowing Ming”, however, does not mean knowing fate. Indeed, it’s almost its opposite. It is the term that Confucius gave to acting without regard to the results of one’s actions. Mindful of fate’s capriciousness, he preached that virtue carried within it its own reward, namely “the wise are free from doubts; the virtuous from anxiety; the brave from fear” (IX, 28). The Confucian should act without regard for the effect of their actions. Acting for profit or self-interest was anathema to Confucius (and explains China’s negative attitude to commerce until recent times). To know Ming, therefore, is to entrust the results of one’s actions to fate, and not to let its possibly negative after-effects deter one from acting virtuously.
The influence of Confucianism in Chinese history
Confucianism rose to greatest prominence during the Han dynasty (200 BC – 200 AD), when Confucius was almost revered as a God and his teachings widely propagated. However, because it does not focus on a metaphysical aspect it would be misleading to consider Confucianism a religion; it was an influential social philosophy.
Since Confucius legitimised and promoted an autocratic social structure, many Emperors turned to Confucian scholars for administrative assistance in governing their empires. From a ruler’s point of view the ingeniousness of a Confucianist society is that it is self-regulating. Because all citizens are required to act in accordance with a pre-established pattern of behaviour, there is no need for a legal or police framework to define or deter unacceptable social actions. Strong, central rule, the lack of a rigorously enforced legal framework and a negative attitude towards commerce are three major, Chinese truisms that trace their history, in part, back to Confucius.
Confucianism has influenced the development of social thought through much of East Asia. It is important to emphasise that the accent of his teaching lies not on metaphysical but on social thought. For a Chinese philosophy with a metaphysical dimension we should turn our attention to Daoism.
To understand how Tibetan Buddhism differs from other Buddhist schools we need to consider its development from two different perspectives, the first ideological and the second historical. Although these are here considered separately, they of course developed with reference to each other.
Ideological Development
Ideologically Tibetan Buddhism is a derivation of Mahayana Buddhism heavily influenced by Tantrism. To unravel this jargon-cloaked statement, we should take a look at the essential constituents and development of Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism and Tantrism.
Buddhism
The term Buddha, meaning “enlightened one”, refers to the spiritual awakening of an Indian prince, named Siddhartha Gautama, who lived in the 6th century BCE. Renouncing the privileges of his royal life, he sought to investigate spiritual truth. On so doing, he passed into the state of enlightenment, known as nirvana , which literally means “without desire”. Soon he inspired many disciples and came to be known as the “Sage of the Sakya tribe” or Sakyamuni. During his first sermon he established the four core principles of his teaching or dharma:
1) All beings inevitably endure suffering (duhka)
2) The cause of suffering is desire (samudaya)
3) The cause of desire can be contained (nirodha)
4) To contain the cause of desire one must follow the Buddha’s path (marga)
Sakyamuni taught that enlightenment was predicated on nonattachment to the material world. He found that language could not be used to convey the sense of enlightenment, which was described as consisting of neither fullness nor emptiness, being nor nonbeing, substance nor nonsubstance. However, the process of seeking enlightenment could be identified and defined, as suggested by his ascetic life as well as by his fourth law, written above. The seeker needs a lifestyle and environment conducive to purity of thought, word and action. This is the motivation for Buddhist monasticism.
Mahayana Buddhism
Buddha’s teachings motivated many followers in India to follow his example. In his lifetime and after, a minority attained enlightenment. These individuals were named Arhats , or “worthy ones’. However, little moved by the suffering of others, these Buddhist practitioners felt no responsibility to pass on their learning other than by affirming that the Buddha’s path provided the way to nirvana. Though this approach maintained the purity of Buddha’s original teachings, other thinkers considered it lacking in compassion.
As a result a major schism arose in the 6th century between Mahayana Buddhism and the more conservative Theravada Buddhism on the subject of compassion. The Mahayana school emphasised that spiritual life should not merely aim for ultimate wisdom, but consist of wisdom tempered by compassion. In order to reinforce this tenet of compassion, the Mahayana Buddhists developed the concept ofBodhisattvas , who were placed above Arhats in their hierarchy. Bodhisattvas are individuals, who stand on the verge of enlightenment but delay their attainment of nirvana out of compassion for other beings, in order that they may assist them to enlightenment.
Tantrism & Re-incarnation
Tantrism was a later innovation. The first Tantric texts arrived in Tibet in the eleventh century and fuelled the second diffusion of Buddhism there.
According to orthodox Mahayana Buddhism, any individual has the potential to become a Bodhisattva , but this can only be achieved through diligent cultivation over many lifetimes. By contrast the Tantric or Vajrayana school, (“Vehicle of the Diamantine Thunderbolt”), innovated a “rapid path” to nirvana , by which it could be attained within one’s lifetime. This was made possible with the application of a variety of powerful techniques, passed down under the auspices of a guru. Known as tantra , these techniques include the making and contemplation of mandala diagrams, fasting and other penance, the use of prayers and mantras in meditation and the performance of rituals. Execution of this range of intense yogic and meditative disciplines, combined with an understanding of its system of speculative thought, is thought to give access to nirvana .
Earlier in this article, Tibetan Buddhism was introduced as a derivation of Mahayana Buddhism, influenced by Tantrism. The above explanation should have clarified this statement. It should also have shed light on the principle reason behind the monastic movement in Tibet and alluded to the intensity of worship and teacher/student relationships inside those monasteries.
Historical Development
In terms of our modern experience of Tibetan Buddhism, the history of its introduction to Tibet is as important as its ideological underpinnings. Buddhism was introduced twice to Tibet. Both in the 7th and 11th centuries, it met with formidable resistance from the indigenous Tibetan religion. Over time each religion, Pre-Bön and Tibetan Buddhist, for its own reasons synthesised and incorporated the main elements of the other.
Pre-Bön Religion
Although some people call this pre-7th century religion the Bön Religion, we identify it as the Pre-Bön Religion to differentiate it from its later innovations.
Pre-Bön Religion itself was a combination of two movements. On the one hand, at the grass roots level, it was a popular belief-system dating to pre-historic times. Combining ancient prophecies, rites and shamanistic interpretations of the human spirit and its position in the universe, it offered answers for important issues of pre-historic existence. For example, a shaman might mediate with the spirit world – often using animal sacrifice to do so – to cure an invalid, to prey for rain, or to furnish strategic advice for the village chief.
It was animistic, upholding that spirits are to be found within natural phenomena like trees, mountains, springs and lakes, all of which demanded to be propitiated.
With the rise of the first Tibetan Kings at the beginning of the first millennium, this widespread Pre-Bön Religion was co-opted to legitimise kingly rule. A religious institution, comprised of deities, mythologies, and rituals arose around the court. Priests and priestesses, believed to have superhuman skills, were incorporated within a political framework that involved ceremonies and royal burials.
By the time that King Songtsen Gampo tried to introduce Buddhism in the 7th century, the Pre-Bön Religion was popular throughout Tibet and held significant political sway at court.
Tibetan Buddhism and The Rise of the Bön Religion
The introduction of Buddhism in the 7th and 11th centuries heralded changes for both Pre-Bön Religion and Tibetan Buddhism. After the 11th century the Pre-Bön Religion adopted many aspects of Tibetan Buddhist doctrine, such as Tantric meditation techniques and monasticism to become the Bön Religion. To many spectators this now appears to have developed into its own school of Buddhism. Contemporaneously though, Buddhism in Tibet adopted many aspects of the Pre-Bön, indigenous religion in order to achieve greater popularity.
An important example of this process is seen in the incorporation of local deities within the Tibetan Buddhist cosmology. This was done by their “conversion” at the hands of the 8th century saint Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava). The local Pre-Bön gods thereby became protectors rather than combatants of Tibetan Buddhism. Known as Dharma Palas or “Defenders of the Dharma”, these are the fierce-looking deities, often depicted with skull headdresses, surrounded by fire. One such, Yamantaka, is the “Destroyer of Death”.
Another innovation borrowed from Pre-Bön Religion was in aggrandising the abilities of the guru or lama. The supernatural powers, previously ascribed to the shamans of the Pre-Bön tradcition, were now credited to the Tibetan Buddhist lamas. Some lamas, it is claimed, can leap from peak to peak across mountain ranges. Alternatively, rainmaking ceremonies, the traditional preserve of shamans, were now incorporated within Buddhist monastic ceremonies. Similarly, the gift of prophecy, with which the shaman was privileged, now is ascribed to some lamas. Indeed, the Dalai Lama’s government used prophecy as a guide for determining national policy in the mid-twentieth century.
The form and practice of Tibetan Buddhist worship were equally affected. For example, the animistic aspect of the Pre-Bön religion has been blended into local Buddhist practice. Nowadays, you will see Buddhist prayer flags and cairns topping many mountains. As according to the Pre-Bön Religion, Tibetan Buddhists will still say a prayer before crossing a mountain pass. Similarly, the Tibetan Buddhist practice of making a blessing, dipping one’s finger into water or milk and flicking the liquid skyward, derives from the Pre-Bön era.
Although in many cases Tibetan Buddhism incorporated features of Pre-Bön Religion for its own purposes, in others cases it seems that Buddhist thought was co-opted by the instinctive beliefs of the Tibetan nation. On a high, ideological level this is evidenced by Tantric sects oftentimes having recourse to mystical visualisations seemingly derived from the Pre-Bön Religion.
Conclusion
Buddhism, a comparatively late import to Tibet, was ideologically attractive to the intellectual elite with the innovation of Tantric techniques by which individuals could attain enlightenment within their lifetime. This esoteric doctrine, in large part confined to monastic activities, was made palatable to the general populace in combination with the appropriation of many trappings of the indigenous Pre-Buddhist Tibetan belief system. As a result Tibetan Buddhism amalgamates both elitist and populist traditions to satisfy the different requirements of its two audiences as well as to respond to both religious and mythological dimensions of the Tibetan psyche.
Buddhism is said to have traveled into China along the Silk Road in the first half of the first century AD. Its rise to prominence grew in proportion to the increasing traffic along the Silk Road, so that by the Tang dynasty (618-907AD) when China's capital, Chang'an, was one of the world's most prosperous cities, Buddhist translations were for the first time accessible. It was during this period that a new variant of Buddhism arose, which used elements from Daoism to beget a quintessentially Chinese variation of the Indian import. This new school came to be known as the Chan, or in Japan, the Zen school.
General concepts of Buddhism:
The general principles of Buddhism are evident in Chan Buddhism. That is to say that the world is an illusion conjured up by each individual's mind, that every thought has the power to produce a retributive future result (known as karma ), and that it is this that decides what form we will appear in during our next life. Enlightenment occurs when we understand this, and nirvana is attained when we are emancipated from the endless cycle of life and death to join the Universal Mind. The main Chinese variations within Chan Buddhism are as follows:
1) The Theory of the double truth:
This defines two different kinds of truth, a common one and a higher one, on three different levels. At the heart of this complex theory is an examination of the inter-relationship between existence and non-existence. Truth is complicated by the fact that on the one hand there is physical form or existence and, on the other, everything is said to be illusory or non-existent. In which case, what and where is truth – within existence or non-existence? After considering this, the theory then considers the same question for enlightenment.
2) "A good deed entails no retribution". This idea stems from the Daoist belief in non-action, i.e. that action without effort, which is natural and spontaneous to the essence of the individual, does not entail any future retribution or " karma ".
3) The method of attaining enlightenment is to do things without deliberate effort and purpose and live naturally. This (again linked toDaoism ) prepares the mind for enlightenment.
4) That enlightenment occurs suddenly. Although non-action or living the life of non-cultivation diminishes distracting elements and facilitates contemplation, enlightenment itself is not a gradual process but a sudden revelation.
5) Although words can be a useful tool to explain a thought, they can only ever be an approximation to the idea. Thus, the state of enlightenment can never be described.
6) There is no other reality than this phenomenal world. Whereas the unenlightened only see the physical objects around them, the enlightened in addition to this see the Buddha nature within the phenomenal world.
This brief list of variations gives an impression of the far-reaching influence of Daoism on the synthesis of Chan Buddhism.
A former professor of architecture of Qinghua university (China's top technical university) was visiting a friend, whose multi-national Chinese company had recently moved office. As soon as he saw his friend's north-facing office window, the professor gasped in horror. "You ought to have that bricked over," he instantly advised, "it attracts bad qi ." The company chairman, astonished by this outlandish suggestion, ignored it. A few unlucky years later however, he called in a Hong Kong fengshui (or geomancy) expert to look over his premises. And the first recommendation… was to have the chairman's window bricked over.
This light-hearted example shows that the Chinese occult universe is not locked away in the past. It is a system of often practical ideas prevalent to varying degrees in all contemporary Chinese communities, which is gaining increasing currency in the West. From the lunar calendar to fengshui to homoepathic medicine, the term "occult universe" refers to a complex scientific system developed in China from the third millenium BC to explain the workings of the universe. Its significance in determining the development of subsequent Chinese philosophies, from Mohism to Daoism to Imperialism is paramount.
The Occult Universe
Between the 22nd and 12th centuries BC, Chinese thought was integrated into a robust system of cosmological and political significance. Incorporated within this were the six classes of occult arts, more specifically (1) astrology, (2) almanacs, (3) the five elements, (4) divination by stalks, (5) other methods of divination and (6) the system of forms (which includes physiognomy and fengshui or geomancy). The basic building blocks for this elaborate system were the Five Elements, which were thought to make up the universe, namely Water, Fire, Wood, Metal and Earth. Each of these five base elements was grouped with physical phenomena, which they were thought to influence, thus creating five different sets of forces or powers, termed the Five Powers.Hence the element Fire, whose basic attribute is heat, was grouped with the direction South, the daily time of high noon and the season of summer. Using the same approach, the four elements Fire & Water and Wood & Metal were grouped with similar physical phenomena and categorised into opposing sets of dynamically interactive Powers. The fifth element, Earth or soil, was incorporated within this schema, somewhat uncomfortably, to make up the Fifth of the Five Powers.
The Five Powers
Since the Ancients assumed that nature responded to the actions of humans, the interaction of the Five Powers was explained in such a way as to relate changes in time and space to human conduct. Thus a relationship was established between the conduct of nature and that of humankind. This is clearly illustrated in The Book of Rites , chapter 4:
"In the first month of spring the east wind resolves the cold. Creatures that have been torpid during the winter begin to move.. All plants bud and grow. The sovereign charges his assistants to disseminate lessons of virtue and harmonise governmental order. Prohibitions are given against cutting down trees. [because wood is the symbol of spring] In this month no warlike operations should be undertaken; such an undertaking is sure to be followed by calamities of heaven (ie natural disasters)."
The Emperor's actions therefore directly affected the course of nature. And it was as a direct result of this symbiotic relationship between the Emperor and Nature that Imperial rule was legitimised in the eyes of the people. This is why the Chinese Emperor's official title was "Emperor through the Mandate of Heaven and in accordance with the movements of the Five Powers."
Establishment of the Confucianist Model
The above format, was combined with the (1) theory of yin and yang and (2) the doctrine of the mean, so that by the 12th century BC King Wen could symbolically represent the pattern of change within the universe in his famous work, the Yi Jing or Book of Changes . This was the cosmological model that Confucius inherited and elaborated with moral significance.
1) The theory of Yin and Yang:
Yang originally meant sunshine and Yin darkness or shadow. Soon, though, they came to refer to two opposing yet complementary cosmic forces. Yang is the universal, masculine principle that denotes the vigorous, bright, hot, dry, hard and active, while Yin is the feminine principle that inspires the passive, docile, cold, dark, wet and gentle. It is the intercourse of these two forces or principles that not only produces all things, but also governs all processes of change.
According to the beliefs underpinning the Book of Changes everything in the universe has a universal principle which defines it. Thus, for example, all walls must correspond to certain specifications to be classified as such; a wall must be upright, solid and thin, otherwise it isn't a wall. In the same way, houses, vehicles and seasons are defined by universal principles. And the same is true for sons, wives, kings and farmers. They all conform to defining, universal principles.
It is then alleged that each of these principles contain and react to different measures of Yin and Yang, depending on circumstance. For example, when a minister talks to a sovereign he should be amenable and passive – a yin characteristic. Yet when, in ancient China, that minister returns home and talks to his family members he should behave in a decisive and firm manner – characteristics of yang. Thus the same thing or person can respond to the prevalent cosmic forces of Yin and Yang in different ways depending on time and circumstance.
Further, the Book of Changes assumes that the general movement of a body or idea or emotion between Yin and Yang is described by the concept of reversal. And so Lao Zi, the Daoist founder who promotes this concept, writes "reversal is the movement of the Power." This means, for example, that the movement of the sun to its zenith (associated with yang) precipitates its reverse movement to the nadir (associated with yin). Similarly, the excessive heat of summer (yang) brings about a reverse movement in the opposite direction to lead us towards winter (yin). Or else in terms of Chinese history, China's continuing fluctuations between political unification (yin) and fragmentation (yang) could be said to evidence this law. Thus every class of thing fluctuates between yin and yang polar opposites about a mean.
2) The Doctrine of the timely, ordinary mean:
This teaching claims that for harmony (the mean) to be ensured every process should happen at a time and in a way proper and fit for it to occur. Thus, winter should begin in December, babies should talk after two years and relatively young people should get married. If events happen in such a way as to conform to a natural sequence, then harmony will prevail and the events, incorporated within this harmonic order, will stand a better chance of being propitious.
In the 12th century BC the laws of the occult system, the theory of yin and yang and the law of the timely mean were synthesised into a complete cosmological and metaphysical system, which is symbolically represented in the Book of Changes .
The Book of Changes
The Book of Changes is comprised of a logically developing series of 64 images mapping every possible yin yang change process. Since every physical and abstract element of reality is susceptible to each of these defined change processes, the whole universe, past, present and future can be viewed through their images.
You use the book of changes like this: you go to a practitioner to inquire about an important event in your life. The practitioner, after a long procedure of yarrow stalk selection, will tell you which of the 64 change processes is controlling your particular event. She will show you its image, or "hexagram", and then will describe the usual characteristics of this change process in your circumstance, informing you how best to act (in accordance with the doctrine of the mean) in order to ensure the propitious completion of the event.
The images in the Book of Changes are called hexagrams, so called because they are made up of six lines. However, it is more correct to think of each hexagram as composed of two trigrams, one on top of the other, each of which is made up of three lines. There are in all 8 trigrams, and by combining each trigram with the other (8 x 8) you get the 64 images or hexagrams that make up the Book of Changes . Each trigram is made up of a combination of three undivided (yang) or divided (yin) lines. And, in the manner of the Five Powers, each trigram is associated with a variety of physical forces to form the visual representation of an interactively linked, dynamic universe. The fundamental visual concepts are expressed in the following popular schema. At the centre are the black and white Yin Yang fish, simultaneously combining to make a whole, flowing into one another to represent the endless process of change. Around this are each of the eight trigrams, placed in such a way as to correspond to their natural compass points.
When you read about Confucianism or Daoism, you will see how the main concepts of the Book of Changes are to be found at the root of much Chinese thought..
Yong Le (r. 1402-1424), the third Ming Emperor, moved the capital of China back to Beijing in order to fortify Northern China against the continuing threat of the bellicose Mongols. It was he that razed the palaces of Kublai Khan, built over a century earlier, to redesign the Forbidden and Imperial Cities in their new location slightly to the south-east. Since then, with only minor interruptions, the Forbidden City has served as an exclusive seat of government. Just as commoners were not allowed to penetrate the Forbidden City under the Ming and Qing dynasties, today most citizens and foreigners are not permitted into the government conclave in Zhongnanhai.
The rule of the Emperor was legitimized through a code known as the Mandate of Heaven, which presumed that the Emperor owed his status to Heaven. When an Emperor and dynasty were deposed successfully, this was interpreted as being in line with a new will of heaven, for otherwise it would not have been allowed to occur. In this way, the exclusionary and privileged life of the Emperor behind the walls of the luxurious Forbidden City was legitimized. So it is that in the Forbidden City there are reputed to be 9,999.5 rooms; half a room short of 10,000 which, it is said, is what the original Jade Emperor possesses in his Heavenly Palace.
One of the major political developments under the Ming dynasty was the Emperor's greater involvement in the administration of China. Rather than delegate control to the Ministries, the Ming Emperors developed a complex Imperial bureaucracy, comprised mainly of eunuchs, to supervise the machinations of government. As a result, to accommodate this vast, internal administration, the Forbidden Palace had to be constructed on a hitherto unprecedented scale.
The architecture and design of the Forbidden City along a North South axis reflect its dual purpose of providing a suitable environment for both Imperial government and Imperial life. To the South the buildings are grandiose and formal, built on a scale to impress visiting dignitaries. As you wander further north into the Emperor's personal quarters, you will see smaller structures, reflecting the greater intimacy of the Emperor's private life. The division between the private and public quarters takes place about the Gate of Celestial Purity. To its south are the three formal reception halls of Supreme Harmony, Central Harmony and Preserved Harmony. To its north is the Empress's Palace of Celestial Purity, the Emperor's Palace of Terrestrial Tranquillity and between them, the Hall of Terrestrial and Celestial Union.
Thus, in Imperial times, seniority translated into geography: the more senior you were, the further north you were invited to advance. Whereas a visiting ambassador might only be allowed as far as the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the tallest building in Imperial Beijing, a King might be invited further north into the Hall of Preserved Harmony.
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Dear Guy, The 2008 Beijing Olympics are re-casting the competitive landscape of Beijing's hotel industry. The opening of three luxury hotels in Financial Street this autumn, in addition to Raffles Hotel in central Beijing, will re-distribute high-end leisure and corporate guests within the city. This edition of "Imperial Tours China News" will introduce these new properties and will discuss the relative merits of the eastern Central Business District (CBD) versus the up and coming Financial Street on the western side of the city. The three new hotels herald a shake-up of Beijing's luxury hotel industry. And, we're only at the beginning – many more hotels, including the Park Hyatt, Four Seasons, Aman, JW Marriott, and another Ritz Carlton are not even included in this missive because they haven't yet opened. !!!! Rooms for 2008 Beijing Olympics NOW coming onto market!!!! We have begun the process of booking hotel rooms for the 2008 Olympics period. This process contains many caveats because the Beijing Olympic Committee has not yet released logistical and ticketing information. Also, many of the properties now taking bookings are new and untested in terms of service. However, early bird bookers can now make room reservations via Imperial Tours. This is on a first come, first served basis, so please drop us a line if you have clients interested in booking rooms during the 2008 Olympics. To recap, this broadcast covers the following issues:
Lastly, to inspire your day at work, we are including an introduction to the zaniest of ancient Chinese philosophers, Zhuangzi. Professor Wang Bo of Beijing University will take you on a voyage through Zhuangzi's startling viewpoints to reveal fresh and provocative insights into life. |
Virtuoso's China Onsite Traveling China…in style Phone us at 888 888 1970 |
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East or West Beijing? Financial Street, located in west central Beijing, is a new development in which the new Intercontinental, Ritz Carlton and Westin hotels are based. Previously, Beijing's luxury hotels, such as the St. Regis, were on the east side of the city in an area now called the "Central Business District" or CBD for short. This includes foreign embassies and the most sought after commercial real estate. To compete, the government of Xicheng District, on Beijing's western side, has launched Financial Street. This is a real estate development targeting the country's top insurance, banking and telecommunications companies. Already JP Morgan and Goldman Sachs, the two top U.S. investment banks in China, have moved their offices to Financial Street following in the wake of a stampede of major Chinese companies said to represent almost half of China's GDP. Clearly, this puts the Intercontinental, the Ritz Carlton and the Westin Hotels in good company and shifts the city's center of gravity westwards. Financial Street is still taking its first steps. Star chefs such as Jereme Leung and luxury good stores, such as Gucci, have not yet moved into its vicinity even though all have plans to do so. Corporate customers in the insurance, financial and telecom sectors are likely customers for hotels in this area, but how attractive will it be for leisure travelers? We think that the hotels on Financial Street will become a good alternative for travelers. The majority of Beijing's tourist sites are in the center or to the west of Beijing. Only the airport is to its north east. Little but inertia and a proven track record tie leisure clients to hotels located in the CBD. When we take into account the larger average room sizes of hotels on Financial Street, the impact of these hotels should be to increase the competitiveness and value for money of Beijing luxury hotels. Consequently, we view the development with its new bars, restaurants and hotels as a welcome innovation in the city. Chinese – American Ties We are used to hearing of enmity rather than amity between China and America. Thank goodness the facts do not bear this out. For just as China is Americans' most popular destination in Asia, with 19% more Americans visiting this year than last, so is America the most popular destination with Chinese citizens, 20% more of whom visited America in the same period. Dunhuang Expands Its Airport Dunhuang lies in the Taklamakan Desert, the world's second largest after the Saharan. Fifteen hundred years ago, this city marked China's border with the Silk Road and was one of the largest and wealthiest entrepots in the world. Thanks to the rise of sea travel and the protection afforded by its own desert remoteness, one of the world's greatest art treasures has lain forgotten in the sands for millennia. The Mogao Caves boast nearly 500 frescoed caves dating from the Silk Road era of the fourth to the fourteenth centuries. By expanding the existing Dunhuang domestic airport to receive international flights, the Mogao Caves and the insights they afford into the Silk Road era will become more accessible to all. To learn more about Dunhuang and the Mogao Caves, please click here. |
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Hotel/Restaurant Update For Hong Kong, Shanghai & Beijing Hotels Comment:The top hotels in Beijing and Shanghai offer excellent service, larger rooms, more modern facilities, superior equipment and lower prices than their peers in London, New York, Paris and Rome. Why not recommend China for a private tour? For a lower daily price than a typical European hotel, your clients can enjoy an altogether superior and more exotic experience in the form of an exclusive private tour of China. Beijing New Hotel Properties On Financial Street The hotels reviewed below have raised the bar still higher for five star hotels in China. A flat screen TV, sound system, DVD player, broadband internet access, quality bath products and spa are now taken for granted. The newly extended characteristic is the room size. Ritz Carlton Hotel Intercontinental Hotel Westin Hotel Update – Since its opening, travel agents have complained to me about the Westin's service. This is not unexpected. Hotel's are opening at an unbelievable pace in China's main cities, and their human resource departments find it hard to get up to speed. New properties in China often have excellent hardware, but their service levels should be expected to be erratic in the first weeks, months and even years of operation. One To Watch – Raffles Hotel Commune By The Great Wall – Phase 2 When Imperial Tours went to inspect the properties shortly thereafter we discovered that many of the bedrooms did not have en-suite bathrooms and many of the room fixtures fell short of expectations. For this reason, we used its excellent restaurant and banquet facilities but never booked its rooms. On Saturday September 24th, 2006, the second phase was opened. In all there are 12 buildings based on modifications of 4 designs from the first phase. Now managed by Kempinski, the mid-level five star German hotel operator, all bedrooms come with en-suite bathrooms, and while fixtures are not first class, they are serviceable. The in situ Six Senses Spa is well done, and I can foresee many Friday afternoons when my office-numbed mind will race one hour out of the city ahead of me in quest of reinvigoration. Commune By the Great Wall is a design phenomenon nestled in a valley running by the Great Wall of China about one hour's drive north of the city center. As a design concept, it delivers. However, the challenge of successfully delivering a range of high quality services to demanding guests in approximately 60 rooms in 12 separate buildings, is likely to stretch the capabilities of the local staff. Notwithstanding that it would be wise to forewarn guests of the likelihood of service issues, visitors will be pleased by the architectural journey that this property offers. Shanghai Le Royal Meridien Other Destinations Sofitel Xi'an at Renmin Square Four Seasons, Hangzhou Restaurants Comment: Over the past year, Shanghai's restaurant scene has become so much hotter than Beijing's that we Beijing-based expats have been scratching our heads in wonder at the widening gap. The capital's restaurant scene is now responding. In this broadcast, we report on four new restaurants in the city, of which three would meet our customers' high expectations. Meanwhile, Shanghai has not been idle. Bund 6 is a new lifestyle center that has opened to challenge Three on the Bund and Bund 18. And Bund 5 is repositioning itself to join the three other buildings as a lifestyle center. Beijing Garden of Delights – At long last, Beijing has an independent western restaurant to challenge the complacent Courtyard. Long time Beijing resident and award-winning Venezuelan architect, Antonio Ochoa-Piccardo has teamed up with star chefs Mariano Montero and Edgar Leal of "Cacao" in Coral Gables, FL to open this wonderful South American restaurant. "Garden of Earthly Delights", the painting by Hieronymus Bosch, images of which appear throughout the restaurant, is a fitting metaphor for this stage of epicurean adventure. Our journey through the garden began with delicious black bean foam and ended with a hot chocolate so creamy that three of us duelled over it with our spoons. Between the beginning and end of the satiating repast, we dined on finely prepared ceviche, seared foie gras, seafood tamale and an Argentinean Matambre steak, all of which are to be recommended. The restaurant's surroundings are as warm and inventive as its cuisine. And the Chinese wait staff, under the watchful direction of the charming restaurant manager Alex and executive chef Daniel, were inspired with the charm of the Latin skies. Lan by South Beauty – Beijing joins the ranks of metropolises boasting a Philippe Starck-designed restaurant. South Beauty, a fast-expanding Sichuanese restaurant chain in China, is moving into the high end segement. Having opened South Beauty 881 in Shanghai (featured in a previous broadcast), Philippe Starck was commissoined to design a huge restaurant space in the LG Tower on Jianguomenwai Road. South Beauty's culinary success is attibutable to their embellishment of Sichuanese food. Well-loved classics such as chilli-spiced chicken and "Lion head" meat balls sit on a menu together with Indian lettuce with sesame sauce and delicate bamboo and squid appetizers. Although the food is good not sublime, it meets the expecations created by the avant-garde decor. My criticism of this space is that it bears no relation to its context. You could be anywhere in the world; Chinese themes and materials are absent as though the owner, Zhang Lan, wished to create an entirely western locale in the midst of the ancient Chinese capital. Imperial Tours will use this restaurant because Philippe Starck's is a fascinating statement. However, it is a shame that this opportunity to benefit from the talents of a world-class designer was not used to innovate a Chinese aesthetic. Jaan – As promised in our last broadcast, we dined at Jaan, Raffles' new French restaurant. Guillaume Galliot, the Chef de Cuisine, hails from Michelin three star "Le Jardin Des Sens" in Montpellier, France, whose sister restaurant, Sens & Bund in Shanghai, regularly features on our private tours. For this reason, our expectations of Chef Galliot were high. The lightness of touch of the salmon carpaccio, seared tuna, lobster capuccino, seafood salad, steamed sea bass and baked cod were a delicious tonic. Jaan is clearly one of the best western restaurants in the city. Nhu – This is a recently-opened western restaurant – bar – club opened by a few veteran Beijing restaurateurs. This venue has already become the darling of PR companies for multimedia events using its panoply of multi-functional spaces. Although Nhu is a welcome addition to expat life, judged on the quality of its food, its appeal is limited to a local rather than international clientele. Shanghai The Chinoise Story – Various restaurants of Andrew Tjoe, the Singaporean restaurateur, have been previously reviewed in our past broadcasts. One of the first, "Humble House" in Chengdu, was featured in "Departures" as part of our Culinary Tour, and his "Humble House" in Beijing has been reviewed here long ago, and has now appeared in many international magazines. "The Chinoise Story" is his new venture in Shanghai, in which he is partnered by the Old Jinjiang Hotel, an Art Deco structure in which the restaurant is located. The food is good and the design of the restaurant is suitably nostalgic whilst remaining contemporary. White leather banquette seats allude to the glamour of the interwar period, whilst articulated white lacquer panels and geometric pendant lighting reflect the aspirations of modern times. T Sens – Since Sens & Bund is our favorite western restaurant in Shanghai, it is hardly surprising that their recently opened casual dining venue on Suzhou Creek wins my plaudits. While many will question the interior design of this waterfront space both for function (the glass building may be hot in summer and cold in winter) and form (a cross between a wedding cake and a doll's house), the service and food are in line with the pricing. Since Sens & Bund is only a short walk away, the menu has been designed around lower cost items to encourage market segmentation rather than risk having this venue cannibalize sales at Sens & Bund. T Sens is more appropriate for lunch than dinner and should be judged on that basis. Hugo's – This Chinese – Dutch joint venture is located across the street from the Four Seasons in a period building that was formerly the Spanish Consulate. The ground floor and garden make a pleasant brasserie and the upper two floors with their terrace spaces are for fine dining. The restaurant manager and chef hail from De Hoefslag, the Michelin rated restaurant outside Utrecht in Holland. Having eaten my way through four restaurants in a two day period, I had little appetite by the time I arrived at this establishment. The restaurant had not even officially opened when I visited for a bowl of soup, so there is time for me to go back to make a more informed judgement. Shanghai Club – The decor at this restaurant at the north-west corner of the Music Conservatory on Renmin Square is known to be gaudy, so I was pleasantly surprised when the decor was not quite as tacky as I had been warned. Although the chef comes from a Michelin-rated restaurant, the dishes were as disappointing as the service. A Future Perfect – Perfection is a laudable aim. This newly opened restaurant in Shanghai offers easy and light western food. Whilst it is a welcome addition to the expat dining scene in Shanghai, as an alternative to such restaurants as "Mesa", "A Future Perfect" does not make it for the international traveler. Elements Fresh – There are now 5 casual western restaurants in Shanghai offering light salads, soups, pasta and easy western food. For independent travelers who are looking for a break from Chinese food, these casual eateries might be an option. None of these restaurants belong in the luxury bracket. For luxury travelers seeking a more casual dining option in Shanghai, we would recommend "New Heights" on the top floor of "Three on the Bund". The array of newly wealthy Chinese and newly arrived expats taking coffee or a hamburger on the balcony of this historic building recaptures the spirit of Shanghai past. Bund 5 & Bund 6 – So many foreign companies are investing in buildings on Shanghai's Bund these days that at the last People's Congress a Chinese representative complained about the prospect of a second colonization of the Chinese city. As a result, there is some sensitivity to development here. Nonetheless, the current spate of development projects are coming to fruition. Bund 6 offers Dolce & Gabbana's stylish new store on the ground floor. Refreshment is provided at an eponymously named "Martini" bar next door. On the second floor, the Suntori owned and beautifully crafted "Sun" Japanese restaurant is already open, together with Aqua, its accompanying bar. We look forward to the exciting prospect of Tiandiyijia opening on the third floor. Bund 5, which houses the newly enlarged "M on the Bund", is also now upgrading itself to a lifestyle center. The designer furniture store on the ground floor is of interest. However, the spa does not compare to the Evian Spa at Three on the Bund. Attica Shanghai – The dome of a stately Victorian building further south along the Bund, as of last month, played host to the hottest new dance club in Shanghai. Boasting three roof top restaurants looking straight onto Shanghai harbor, it seems that for the next few months this is the place to be seen.
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I wanted to let you know Joe & I felt our China trip was phenomenal! Every aspect of it was so well done; the attention to details was unlike anything we'd seen (and you know we're well traveled). We totally appreciated how you made every effort to have our sightseeing excursions be as uncrowded & uncommercial as possible. And we totally appreciated how you made almost every meal an occasion – we kind of ate our way through China! Unbelievable experience from start to finish!" Tour News 2007 dates and prices for our 13 night monthly departure, the Imperial Tour visiting Beijing, Xi'an, Guilin, Hangzhou and Shanghai, are now out. The price of US$7,680 per person remains a steal in comparison to Europe, and we encourage travel professionals, journalists and editors to re-gear visitors' expectations of China. For details of this tour, please click here. We are also pleased to introduce the new Majestic Tour at US$6,790 per person. Since excellence only comes in one form, Imperial Tours' supporters will be delighted to know that there is no quality difference between this and the classic Imperial Tour. The lower price follows the elimination of Hangzhou from the itinerary. The 11 night tour, visiting Beijing, Xi'an, Guilin and Shanghai, follows a market trend towards shorter itineraries. For more details of departures in April, May, September and October, 2007, please click here. For more information about our August 2007 Family Tour or the subsequent Culinary Tour, departing in September 2007, please call Margot Kong at 888 888 1970 or email her now by clicking here. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) To date, Imperial Tours has principally given assistance, both financial and administrative, to the ambitious Special Olympics program in China. For several years, we have also been sponsoring the education of various rural children. In this newsletter, we thank former customers, particularly guests of "Diversions" of Baltimore, for their assistance in co-sponsoring a new playground for the children of a rural school outside Guilin in southern China. Details of Imperial Tours CSR and the playground can be viewed by clicking here. Thanks to the technical assistance of Kelly Lau of Nike, China, as well as offers of help from other guests, this project will now be moving to a second phase, which we will report on in due course. |
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Zhuangzi, Ancient Chinese Philosopher Discovery – The Spirit of Zhuangzi Imperial Tours sponsored a series of four lectures in Beijing on Chinese philosophy with the aim of increasing the range of materials in English on ancient Chinese philosophy and its impact on modern times. Our first lecture was on the philosopher Zhuangzi and was provided by Professor Wang Bo of Beijing University. Although Zhuangzi lived over 2,000 years ago, his thoughts are relevant to all times. Reveling in paradox and delighting in the absurd, Zhuangzi defies conventional norms. His jesting wit challenges us to re-examine our society, our role in society and our values. He is also appealing in that he practiced what he preached: when the king offered him the prime-ministership, Zhuangzi turned him down. When his beloved wife died, after a few days of sorrow he realized the pointlessness of mourning. His searing gaze is so committed to seeking truth whereever this might lead that he can appear harsh in his views. But although he takes the world as no more than it appears to be, he does invest his vision of it with beauty, value and love. Professor Wang provides a humorous and interesting insight into the challenging ideas of Zhuangzi. Enjoy – and even if you don't read the whole piece, please tell me what you think of it! By Prof. Wang Bo "Good evening everybody. My name is Professor Wang Bo and I have been at Peking University (PKU) for about 24 years since 1982. My area of research is Chinese philosophy. Zhuangzi is my favorite philosopher. Generally speaking philosophers should not like things, you know, they shouldn't be anyone's fan. Well, Zhuangzi is really very special, very cool. So I am just Zhuangzi's fan, and not anyone else's. Tonight we are going to talk about Zhuangzi. Zhuangzi did not like theories – he liked to relax. I hope both you and I feel relaxed. So, let's begin. Zhuangzi was a person; however, I have always suspected that he was not human. In Chinese if you say that someone is not human, you are insulting them. However, there is a story about the famous poet, Su Dongpo, during the Song dynasty. Once, when he wanted to praise a girl he started as though he was going to insult her. He said that the girl was not a human. But he went on to say "but rather a fairy descended to the mortal world". Thus, he created a very strong contrast. Imitating him, I say that Zhuangzi is from heaven. The reason why I say so is because he is so different. Many, including he himself, considered him crazy. Of course this was not due to any mental disorder but because of his understanding of the world and life. Zhuangzi lived about two thousand three hundred years ago. It is very far from us, especially, from you. To us Chinese he is far in time, while for you there are many other kinds of distances also. However, I believe human beings can share many things. Thus, not only I, but I believe also you can comprehend him as well. During his lifetime, Zhuangzi did many strange things. I'll give you two examples. The first is that he refused official positions. We know that Zhuangzi was a great scholar. My name is Wang Bo. Bo means abundant. But compared with Zhuangzi, I am like a grain of rice measured against a granary. So you can imagine the extent of his knowledge. Because of his knowledge many people wanted Zhuangzi to become an official in their government, particularly in the Kingdom of Chu. Zhuangzi was offered the position of Prime Minister, like China's Mr. Wen Jiabao today. Generally speaking, Chinese intellectuals are convinced that "he who excels in study can follow an official career". So many people seek a position in government. However, when Zhuangzi was invited by the King of Chu, he resolutely refused. He told the emissary the story of two animals, a pig and an ox. The ox had often been used as a sacrificial offering in ancient China. Prior to the sacrifice it would receive very good treatment. It would be placed in a nice pen where it could enjoy good food, hot baths and even wonderful music. However, its destiny was to be butchered. By contrast, although the pig is housed in mud in a poor environment, it lives a longer and more unconstrained life. For Zhuangzi, entering government was like becoming a sacrificial ox. Zhuangzi asked the emissary whether he would prefer to be the sacrificial ox or a pig. For Zhuangzi, the answer was obvious. He preferred to be a pig. From the story of The Bull and the Pig we can see Zhuangzi's attitude towards power. He considers power the dirtiest, ugliest and cruelest thing in the world. In Chinese we can describe someone as a "Renwu" ?C literally a human object. In my opinion, and I believe that Zhuangzi would agree with me, this means a person is turned into an object. In other words, power is so corrupting that it can turn a person into an object. The second example of Zhuangzi's peculiarity is related to his wife's death. In China – I believe this is universal – you should demonstrate sorrow in such circumstances. To read the rest of this lecture, please click here. |
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We hope you enjoyed this newsletter. As always, please do write back with any feedback that you would like us to incorporate. Alternatively, please call Margot Kong, our Director of Sales and Marketing, in San Francisco, at 888 888 1970. With Best Regards, To forward this newsletter to a friend, please click here. |
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